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種子學(種子科學、種子技術、種子生理學)  種子文學、種子音樂、種子圖畫、種子寫真、植物圖畫、花卉郵票、花園景觀、台灣田莊  作物生產概論、個別作物學  農業倫理、糧食與農業相關議題 

植物與居家:

 

錦葵科:棉 Gossipium

舊世界棉 (原產印度)

  1. 草棉 G. herbaceum L.

  2. 木本棉 G. aboreum L.

新世界棉 (原產南美洲)

  1. 陸地棉 G. hirsutum (upland cotton)

  2. 海島棉 G. barbadense (sea island cotton)

  3. ....

木棉科:斑枝、木棉、吉貝

  1. 木棉、斑枝  Bombax ceiba L.,原產印度、中國南部、與東南亞。

  2. 吉貝木棉 Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.,原產熱帶美洲。

 

棉史

  • 4000 BC,巴基斯坦出土棉種子的年代。

  • 3000BC,印度出土棉纖維的年代。

  • 1500BC,印度即有詩歌記載棉。

  • 800BC,印度有棉栽培的記載。

  • 320BC,亞歷山大大帝東征,其士兵由印度習得用棉作為床墊以及馬墊,並由印度帶回棉及紡織工人。約同時期Theophrastus記載,印度人以布作衫,其長過膝,以巾繞肩,以長巾纏頭。

  • AD100,起源於印度克什米爾以北的一年生的錦葵科的草棉,經由絲路傳入中國,即由西巴基斯坦進入新疆吐魯番盆地(AD600),然後引入甘肅河西走廊,最後達陝北(AD1000)。此種棉生長期短,但棉小,纖維甚短,產量低,而且因中國北方絲織業十分發達,因此不具競爭力。

  • AD500,起源於印度阿薩姆的錦葵科的木本棉經由緬甸進入中國雲南,然後四川,木本棉此時仍舊是多年生的,在四川種植織成棉布後,再賣到印度。梵文稱木本棉為karpasa,越南語稱為kopaih,轉譯成漢文就成為吉貝,晉代譯為吉貝、劫貝、家貝等或稱為木棉 (唐代元稹、李商隱等詩人愛用此名詞)。現今所稱木棉,木棉科高大喬木,春天開花者,古稱為斑枝花,所產棉絮不能織布。然而木棉與吉貝兩字所指為何物,在中國古代文獻上相當混亂。

  • AD1050,中國廣西已開始種植,江南也開始種植。

  • AD1200,中國廣東、海南島開始種植。

  • AD1300,傳說黃道要由海南島將較進步的棉紡技術及工具傳入中國江南。此時原為熱帶多年生的植物引入溫帶地區後,經選種成為一年生作物,再回頭傳回南入,明代以後,南方已少見多年生的木本棉。

  • 棉花的生產甚為繁瑣,需要軋棉,即碾去棉子來取得棉絮。棉絮要清除黏綴的雜物,然後還要彈花,即整理棉絮成為平行,以便紡紗。

  • AD1100,中國已採用小鐵杖軋棉。

  • 1285,中國江南地區用小竹子來彈花。

  • 1313,王楨農書記載木棉攪車圖,軋棉工作更為順利,木棉彈子圖則說明彈花工具的改良,宋代棉已取代麻成為庶民的主要衣著。

  • 1600,棉花己在中國大量種植,但此後一直停留在傳統的工法,進步不大。傳統中國棉業概為農家規模,缺乏工廠的經營。可能是無法進步的最大原因。

  • 1750,英國Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Nottingham, Leicester等地在還沒有開使用蒸汽機前,就有工廠,總共有工人150,000人,而且也有分工的跡象。

  • 1737,英國Lewis Paul與 John Wyatt發明滾紡機,取得專利。Dr. S. Johnson來鼓勵朋友都是一些出版商,作家,書店老闆等,來投資。在Birmingham, London, Lancashire等地設工廠,每廠都有2500部紡織機。不過因經營不善而告倒閉。

  • 1769,英國 Richard Arkwright 得到新式紡織機專利。該機能夠兼紡經紗與緯紗所紡的布遠較以前者堅韌。1700年他在Nottingham開工廠,仍用馬力,1771年更大的工廠則以改用水力。

  • 1765年英國用人力紡紗,產量50萬磅。1775年用機器紡紗,產量1600萬磅。進口的棉絮大都由Liverpool入港。1780年代後用蒸汽最為動力,生產規模更大。但也造成了童工、女工的問題,以及城市居住環境的惡化。         

  • 1800 以前,歐洲紡織所用棉絮來自巴西、西印度群島、中東、印度等地。AD1794,美國Eli Whitney 發明新式軋棉機 (cotton gin),使得美國南方棉絮產量大增。

  • 美國1790年時,年僅產3,000包,1860年時為 450萬包。1807年時,英國所進口棉花有60%為美國產,1820年時美國南部的產量已居世界第一。1860年時棉花是美國所有外銷之冠。1790 and 1860年間在Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas共有800,000 黑奴參與生產。由於在1808年以後進口奴隸是非法的,因此這些黑奴後來大多是經由生育所增殖。而出口棉花最重要的港口是New Orlean,一個充滿黑人文化之都。1861年美國內戰開始,棉花輸出受阻,英國的棉紡產業以及勞工因而陷入困境。

  • 1844, John Mercer發明棉花處理方法,增加棉絮的韌性以及吸收染料的能力。

  • 1856,19歲,英國的William Henry Perkin為了進行人工合成圭寧的研究,意外地發明人工染料。此後經營工廠大量生產,以應付棉紡業的大量需求。他在37歲時就退休,從事業餘研究,將工廠賣給德國人。英國主要生產布料,而將後續的附加價值的染布等產業拱手讓人。而德國也因此厚植國力,成了世界大戰的因子。

  • AD1892,清國張之洞向美國引入新大陸棉種。

  • AD1901,清國張謇引新大陸種,開始近代棉業。

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主要參考:

  • 趙岡,陳鍾毅  1977 中國棉業史。聯經,台北。

  • H. Hobhouse 1992 Seeds of Change: Five Plants that Transformed Mankind. Papermac, London.

 

 

纖維植物簡表

科別

種實部位

莖部

葉部

錦葵科

鐘麻、洛神葵

.

亞麻科

.

亞麻

.

田麻科

.

黃麻

.

蕁麻科

.

苧麻

.

桑科

.

大麻

.

木棉科

斑枝棉

.

.

瓜科

絲瓜

.

.

.

.

.

.

禾本科

.

稻、麥、芒草

.

莎草科

.

三角藺、大甲藺、蒲

.

燈心草科

.

藺草

.

百合科

.

.

瓊麻、龍舌蘭、虎尾蘭

鳳梨科

.

.

鳳梨

棕櫚科

可可椰子

.

芭蕉科

.

.

馬尼拉麻

露兜樹科

.

.

林投

.

.

.

.

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以下錄自:Richard Arkwright, Cotton King

  • The first cotton-spinning mill was built in 1771 in Cromford, right in the middle of England. This mill heralded the start of the industrial revolution. The father of the factory system was Richard Arkwright.

  • Arkwright was born on 23 December 1732. He was sent off as a teenager to be apprenticed to a hairdresser. He became a hairdresser himself, and a maker of wigs, or perukes.

  • About 1767, he began to build a machine  with friends to spin cotton. They rented a room in a secluded teacher's house behind some gooseberry bushes, but they were so secretive that the neighbours were suspicious and accused them of sorcery, and two old women complained that the humming noises they heard at night must be the devil tuning his bagpipes.

  • So Richard Arkwright moved over the hills to Nottingham, and designed a big machine to be driven by five or six horses. He borrowed money and built a huge ``manufactory,'' to house dozens of machines and hundreds of people.

  • He probably borrowed the idea from Matthew Boulton. In 1762 Boulton had gathered together a whole collection of small businesses and put them together in one complex in Soho in Birmingham; he called it the Soho Manufactory.

  • Arkwright planned the whole thing from the ground up, and employed unskilled workers to operate the machines that he had designed and built. He leased the land in August 1771 and the mill was finished before the end of the year. The building was five floors high, and three of them still stand.

  • He rented a little piece of land, took the brook under the factory, and put a water wheel on the end of the building. Then he brought the sough down the other side of the factory, with another waterwheel. The waterwheels have gone, but you can still see the massive stones where the bearings were, and a mark where the stones have been scraped by the wheel going round.

  • To begin with he used undershot wheels, with the stream flowing underneath and the wheels just hanging in it, but then he heard about John Smeaton's pioneering experiments, which proved that overshot wheels are much more efficient. So Arkwright raised the levels both of the sough and of the brook so that his wheels could be overshot. That gave him enough power to run the entire mill. Five floors of water power.

  • The conventional way to spin cotton was to start with raw imported cotton, straight from Egypt or somewhere. First, card it; this gets rid of some of the seeds and other grot, and straightens out the fibres a bit. The cotton is then teased out into a long thin sliver, and then further into ``roving.'' This has just a suspicion of a twist in it, but it
    is extremely weak. The critical process comes next, the actual spinning, which converts the thick weak roving to strong thin thread.

  • The problem in 1770 was that one person can spin only one thread at a time. You need half a dozen spinners to keep one weaver busy, and the demand for cloth was going up. That's why a spinning machine seemed like a good idea. The spinning jenny had already been invented, but that was essentially a mechanical version of the hand-spinning technique, and it needed not only hand power but also a highly skilled operator.

  • Arkwright analysed the spinner's action, and realised that two things are going on. First you have to stretch out the roving, and second you have to twist the thread. Several spinning machines were designed at about this time, but most of them tried to do the stretching and the spinning together. The problem is that the moment you start twisting the roving you lock the fibres together.

  • What you must do is first pull them gently out, so the thread gets longer, and then twist it to lock the fibres together and give it strength. If you twist it first and then try to lengthen it the fibres lock up and break.  Arkwright's idea was to stretch first and then twist. The roving passed from a bobbin between a pair of rollers, and then a
    couple of inches later between another pair that were rotating at twice the speed. The result was to stretch the roving to twice its original length. A third pair of rollers repeated the process. Arkwright's original machine had four sets of rollers. Later ones had three. They increased the length of the cotton yarn by a factor of four.

  • He discovered that a critical feature was the distance between the rollers; it had to be between one and three inches. The best cotton fibres were about an inch long. The rollers had to be more than an inch apart, because if they were less then they would snap the fibres. The machine was called a water frame because it was powered by a water wheel. There is still one Arkwright water frame, at the Helmshore Museum, and a quarter of it works, powered by electricity, since they don't yet have a working water wheel.

  • There are 32 bobbins along each side of each end of the water frame---128 on the whole machine. Second, it is so automatic that even I could operate it. A conventional spinning wheel needs one skilled operator to spin one thread. The spinning jenny could spin say a dozen threads, but needed a highly skilled operator. Arkwright's water frame needed no skill, and spun 128 threads at a time. Arkwright was well on the way to mass-production.

  • There were really two separate parts of Arkwright's brilliance. First was the machine that turned what had been a slow and skilled operation into childsplay. Second was to get children to do it.

  • Not only did he build a huge mill, but he also built houses for his workers in the village. He transformed Cromford from a scattered community of lead-mining families into a tightly-knit village. He advertised for weavers with large families. Then he gave them houses with a weaving shed on the top floor, where his cotton could be woven, and he took the mothers and children to work in the mill.

  • The kids came in at the age of about ten. They worked from six in the morning until seven at night, with half an hour off for breakfast and 40 minutes for dinner. They got their education in the church on Sundays. The factory inspectors who came round said he treated the kids well, though in one report they said ``the privies were too offensive to be approached by us!'' The mills worked for 23 hours a day, and John Byng said ``when they are lighted up, on a dark night, look most luminously beautiful.''

  • Arkwright's mill was essentially the first factory of this kind in the world. Never before had people been put to work in such a well-organized way. Never had people been told to come in at a fixed time in the morning, and work all day at a prescribed task. His factories became the model for factories all over the country and all over the world. This was the way to build a factory. And he himself usually followed the same pattern---stone buildings 30 feet wide, 100 feet long, or longer if there was room, and five, six, or seven floors high.

  • He built houses for the workers, and a chapel, and he built himself first a house and later a castle, about which John Byng wrote ``it is really, within, an effort of inconvenient ill-taste.'' Arkwright himself, one-time hairdresser, one-time pub landlord, was, according to Carlyle, ``a plain, almost gross, bag-cheeked, pot-bellied Lancashire man ... of copious free digestion,'' which I think meant that he farted a lot. Yet he was knighted, and became High Sheriff of Derbyshire.

  • He was bright enough to invent a spinning machine. He had the vision to see that he could make lots of money by
    mass-production, even though no one had ever done that before. And he was a brilliant manager; he was exceptionally skilful at persuading people to work for long hours in difficult conditions.

  • He built his first mill when he was nearing 40, in 1771. In the next 20 years he built mills all over Derbyshire, Lancashire, and Scotland, and they were not only cotton spinners but money spinners too, for when he died on 3 August 1792 he left half a million, equivalent today to perhaps 200 million pounds.

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